The Cottage Gardener

The Medieval Garden

It is difficult to know exactly what medieval gardens looked like as, unlike the 16th C and beyond, there aren’t many written records from this era. Knowledge has had to be gained from bits and pieces of records, poems, tapestries, artwork and archeological studies. The Medieval period spans a rather broad timespan as well, ranging from 800 A.D. to the 15th C.

However, thanks to the efforts of a few dedicated garden historians, we can identify the key landscape elements and some of the main plants that were favourites of the time (many of which are still available).

Two of the most common types of gardens in late medieval times were the "herber" or small, enclosed garden, and the "flowery mead"- a grassy area spotted with natural plantings of meadow flowers. Both can be replicated by modern gardeners.

The Herber

This was usually a small space enclosed with fencing, with turf seats around the perimeter and fragrant herbs planted within. The herber was meant as a place of relaxation, of retreat. Its design tended to be fairly formal and symmetrical. The main ingredient in this area would be herbs, and the more fragrant the better (after all, hygiene was not the best in those days!). Plantings were usually done in raised, rectangular beds with plank walls. Each bed would have a variety of herbs planted within as well as roses (lots!) and lilies. Paths between the beds would be of gravel or sand, and there might be a central fountain.

If you were trying to recreate a herber, you might enclose your space with wattle fencing (bent twigs interwoven - watch for an upcoming article explaining how to construct them!), or more pragmatically, cedar rail fencing. The more affluent amongst you might like to build a brick wall to enclose their herber.

One component you absolutely must re-create is the turf seat. This is made by using bricks, planks, cement landscaping blocks (decidedly not medieval, but practical ) to build up a seating area into which you pile dirt. On top of the dirt you lay sod or plant grass. When the grass grows, keep it trimmed, and voila! you have a "turf seat"! I understand they’re actually quite comfortable (except immediately after a downpour). Turf seats could be constructed around the entire perimeter of the herber, or perhaps in a corner or two.

Roses were very popular in late medieval times although there was limited variety, and the plant list at the end of this article provides the names of some of those that still survive. Try planting climbing roses to tumble over your wall, or to clamber up trellises or arbours. Wood structures were very popular with medieval gardeners.

The Flowery Mead

As hard as it was for me to believe, medieval gardeners actually really loved short, cropped grass! I had thought mown grass was a 20th century invention, but how wrong I was! Achieving that cropped look, however, was no easy matter in the 12th - 15th centuries, and was accomplished through some poor sod (no pun intended) hand-scything the whole area. Today, the challenge of creating a flowery mead is to not cut the lawn too much or too short, so as to allow the flowers to grow and bloom.

Flowery meads were essentially meadows, or grassy areas, studded with flowers - most particularly English daisies, primroses, forget-me-nots, violets, daffodils, cowslips, wild strawberries and cornflowers. For pragmatic reasons, you may want to concentrate on spring-blooming flowers that will allow you to mow the grass by mid-summer before it gets too long and wild-looking. Flowers growing in the mead would tend to be in scattered plantings, with different plants intermingled with each other. This is what would happen if they naturalized, and will look more authentic than planting in solid groups or Jekyllian "drifts". This type of garden is perhaps more appropriate to a slightly larger property than would be needed to create the herber.

Medieval Plants

Voices from the Past: Garden Writers of Influence (Part One)

In my descriptions of plants, I often name-drop - "Robinson loved it!" or "Grown by Gerard...". Who, might you ask, are these people, and why should I care what they grew or didn’t grow, liked or didn’t like? Well, they’re garden writers from the past, and if you are the least bit interested in heirloom plants you’ll care a lot about them. You see, without the books written by these people, it would be nearly impossible to find and trace heirloom plants. In fact, the histories of many plants and gardening styles originate in the 14th to 15th centuries, when garden/plant-writing started in earnest. I have a great many books written by various people in various centuries, and these form the main source of my horticultural research. I’d like to introduce you to a few key writers- some you’ll probably recognize, others you won’t. But each in his/her own right was a horticultural hero who influenced both contemporary and future generations of gardeners.

John Gerard (1545 - 1612)

A well-regarded Elizabethan gardener and plant collector, and for twenty years gardener to Lord Burghley, he wrote his Herball, or Historie of Plants, in 1597. Although not entirely original (he borrowed from earlier books) or accurate (he claimed as native many plants which were not), his writing was descriptive and delightful, resulting in the continued popularity of his book. A later version with many of the mistakes rectified was edited in 1633 by Thomas Johnson. The original Herball was a weighty tome (1600 pages), and so I have an abbreviated version - still invaluable.

Nicholas Culpeper (17th century)

Although he began studies in medicine at Cambridge, he gave up his studies after the accidental death of his fiancée, and instead apprenticed with an apothecary in London. Shocked by the difference between his lifestyle (he was born of nobility) and that of the London poor, he set himself up as an apothecary and focussed on helping common people care for themselves. He wrote The Complete Herbal in 1649 to make healing knowledge available to the masses. His book uses common English names for plants, highlights native British plants and uses astrological classification to determine the healing uses of each plant.

William Robinson (1838 - 1935)

Originally a gardener to nobility, he became a prolific writer and one of the most influential voices in garden design of the Victorian age. In fact, Henry Mitchell wrote that "Robinson...for all practical purposes invented gardening as we...know it". Railing against the formal bedding-out schemes so popular with Victorians, with their rigid planting designs and bold-coloured annuals, he almost single-handedly brought about the return to naturalistic garden styles and the use of perennials in mixed beds. This led to the resurgence of interest in the cottage-garden style. In 1883 he wrote his most famous book, "The English Flower Garden", a classic that was subsequently re-issued 15 times.

Gertrude Jekyll (1843 - 1932)

Another highly influential writer of the Victorian age, she began her garden writing career working for William Robinson. Taken with his ideas, she developed them in her own way - popularizing the "drift" approach to planting, for instance - and became a well-known garden designer, working with Edwin Lutyens-a brilliant young architect. She had an incredible knack for colour and plant combinations, and became interested in plant propagation - developing many cultivars that were, and still are, named either after her or her beloved property, Munstead Wood. She wrote a total of 13 books that are still worth reading today.

John Parkinson (1567 - 1650)

An avid gardener and plant collector, and appointed Apothecary to James I, he published the renowned Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terristris in 1629. A later work, Theatrum Botanicum, published when he was 73 years old, is the largest herbal in the English language. However, it is Paradisi that he is remembered for. (By the way, the first three words of this herbal are a rough translation of his name -"Park-in-sun". The man obviously had a sense of humour.) His work provides a wonderful insight into 17th century gardening, with many delightful details of the uses for the plants described.

There are many other writers whose work has been of significant influence, particularly several women in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, they will have to wait until the next article....

Garden Writers of Old (Part Two)

Several women in the late 19th and early 20th centuries contributed significantly to the field of horticultural writing. Listed below are the profiles of a few whose works I’ve found helpful. (And the best part is that their books have been republished and can be found relatively easily!)

Celia Thaxter

Celia Thaxter’s book "An Island Garden", originally published in 1894, has become a classic in North America. Interestingly, Thaxter considered herself a poet, not a garden writer, and this book was her sole horticultural contribution. What a delight it is, ’though!

Thaxter lived in Massachusetts, but travelled every summer to an island off the coast of New Hampshire, where her family owned a summer resort. It was there that she did all her gardening, and she succeeded in creating a quite beautiful little garden in rather harsh conditions. It is her experiences in creating and nurturing this garden that form the core of her book.

Not only is her book a pleasurable read ( I devoured it in one sitting!), but it also provides invaluable information on plants popular at the turn of the century, and of growing practices of the time.

Helena Rutherford Ely

Sometimes called the American equivalent to Gertrude Jekyll, Helena Rutherford Ely wrote her first gardening book "A Woman’s Hardy Garden" in 1903, followed by two other similar books in 1905 and 1911. In "A Woman’s Hardy Garden" she urged a move away from the rigid Victorian gardens dominated by tropical annuals to more informal beds filled with a mix of perennials and annuals for continuous waves of colour. She especially favoured hardy native plants. This approach was a quite radical departure from contemporary gardening fashion and, like the writings of Robinson and Jekyll in England, significantly influenced garden style in North America. Her writing is straight-forward and informal, filled with helpful gardening snippets of the time and (most importantly for heirloom gardeners) lists of turn-of-the-century plants for the garden.

Louise Beebe Wilder

No discussion of influential garden writers would be complete without the inclusion of Wilder. An American, born in 1878, she contributed her most significant works in the 1930’s. Books such as "What Happens in My Garden" (1935) and "The Fragrant Path" (1932) were wildly popular and are now considered classics. Her writing presents a unique (and welcoming) combination of informality and horticultural specificity. For example, whereas Rutherford (above) might write about the beauty of Lychnis or Chrysanthemum, Wilder provides extensive lists of plants by precise botanical name. "The Fragrant Path", in particular, is a wonderful resource for those wishing to bring fragrance back into their gardens.

Margery Fish

A more recent horticultural expert, Margery Fish gardened at East Lambrook Manor in Somerset, England from the late 1930’s until the 1960’s and wrote a number of gardening articles and books during that time. One of her most well-known contributions was "We Made a Garden", published originally in 1956, in which she documented the efforts of she and her husband to create a cottage-garden from scratch. Margery had a delightful, self-deprecating style of writing, and she became a much-loved and admired garden expert. Many still visit her gardens at East Lambrook, and her works are worth reading to gain insight into the formation of an English cottage-style garden.

Plant Profiles

Heirloom plants almost always have stories to tell. Here’s a chance to get "up close and personal" with some of my favourites:

Rose Plantain (Plantago major rosularis)

A Rose is a Rose is a ??

I never thought I would deliberately invite plantain into my garden. That was before I was introduced to the Rose Plantain, a plant of almost legendary proportions. This is due more to its absence from gardens than its presence, however. I first read about the Rose Plantain in Gerard’s Herbal (or a Historie of Plants, published in 1597). Gerard thought it quite worth having, and included an illustration. This peaked my interest, for the Rose Plantain’s resemblance to the common weed so familiar to us ends with its name.

This is a plant for those who have moved beyond wanting only plants that provide bold splashes of colour in their gardens. The entire plant is green. In fact, it really doesn’t have a flower spike at all. Instead, what may have once been a flower spike has been replaced by a cluster of leaves that are inexplicably shaped like a rose. Each cluster can be up to 3" across, and the plant produces innumerable clusters all summer. There are often up to six "blooms" simultaneously on a plant.

Immensely popular in the Elizabethan era, it then virtually disappeared from gardens. I don’t know exactly how old it is, but it was grown in medieval times, and in the 16th century was described as having been in England for a long time.

After seeing Gerard’s illustration, I spent the next three years searching for seed for this mythic plant. Now that I have it in my garden, I can say that I admire the Elizabethans’ taste. Growing only to 14", and wanting a place in full sun, it merits a spot where it can be observed closely and marvelled at. I find the intricate "rose" clusters particularly fascinating, and the green a welcome respite from all the colours around it. In true plantain style, it does not need molly-coddling and can tough-out dry spells. It is hardy to at least Zone 5, and probably colder.

Lady’s Smock (Cardamine pratensis)

Aka "Cuckoo Flower. An Elizabethan favourite, Lady’s Smock is one of Shakespeare’s flowers:

When daisies pied and violets blue
And lady-smock all silver white
And Cuckoo-buds of yellow hue
Do paint the meadows with delight.

William Shakespeare

Love’s Labour’s Lost, 1595

It acquired its common name because from a distance "the flowers resemble the smocks or chemises laid out by maidens of Elizabethan times, to dry and bleach in the sun." Its original name, however, was "Our Lady’s Smock", reflecting the penchant of Medieval to Elizabethan gardeners to give plants names with religious references.

A plant with a distinguished and ancient history, it had become a cottage-garden favourite by the mid-19th century. Now, however, it is very rare and hardly found in gardens. I find this rather puzzling, given its endearing traits. Extremely hardy, it is one of our first spring bloomers. Mounds of greenery in April are topped by masses of delicate white to lavender, open-faced blooms. What I find particularly wondrous about it is that the shading of the flowers will vary on the same plant - so that some blooms are white, some streaked with lavender, and some pale mauve/lavender. While self-seeding, it is very polite and never becomes invasive.

Lady’s Smock is native to Europe and across northern North America. Delicate in appearance, it is extremely hardy (to Zone 3), and grows to 2’. It prefers damp, shady spots but will do well in sun (which is where we have ours). However, it is not drought-tolerant, and will need extra water during dry spells if planted in full sun. Try combining it with hostas, daylilies and ferns; you’ll find it a most garden-worthy addition.

Seed Sowing FAQ’s

Over the years as seed-sellers, we have received numerous questions from people who are new to seed-growing, or to a particular method of seed-starting. So, we thought we’d compile a list of the most common questions to help you out. We want you to be a successful seed-grower, and if you know a few basics it’s not hard!

Your planting instructions say to use "soil-less mix" - what is it and where can I get it?

"Soil-less" mix is sold specifically for starting seeds indoors in. It’s often called "Seed Starter Mix". It is composed of primarily peat moss, with added vermiculite and perlite. You use this to start your seeds in because potting soil is too heavy and dense. Seeds often drown because they get too waterlogged in potting soil.

You should be able to buy soil-less mix in most garden centres or nurseries. Just go in and ask for starter mix for seeds. Examine the bag to make sure that it’s made up of peat moss - some store sales people don’t know much about gardening.

A number of people, if they’re not starting too many seeds, prefer to use peat discs - these are little round "discs" of compressed, hardened peat. You just put one seed in the middle of each disc and add water - they plump right up and provide the perfect growing medium for the seed. These also you can get at your local nursery.

One thing you need to keep in mind about peat products - they’re very light and porous. This makes them perfect for starting seeds, but they also dry out very quickly. So, you will need to watch them to make sure your seeds don’t dry out, and water them more frequently than potted plants. One of the keys to successful germination is to keep your growing medium moist - not too wet but also not too dry. Either condition will kill your seeds.

You say to keep the seeds "under lights" - I don’t have any seed-growing lights but I do have a sunny window. Will that be okay?

Many seeds need to be exposed to light to germinate. All seedlings need light to grow once they have emerged from the seed shell. Because starting seeds indoors is giving seeds an artificial environment, we want to give them the best replication of their natural outdoor environment.

In terms of light, this means giving them a consistent source of bright light that encourages slow, steady growth. Because plants need light to survive, young seedlings will actually "reach" for the light. If the light source is too far away, or too weak, the seedlings will grow quickly to try to reach it and will become long and straggly, with weak stems. If they’re in a window, they are likely to grow on a slant as they reach for the window.

So, the answer to the window question is - your window won’t be optimal, but depending on how much light comes through it, it may be sufficient. South-facing or west-facing windows are the best - north or east-facing windows may not get enough light. You should also turn your pots a quarter-turn each day, so that the plants grow straight.

If you use lights, start with the light about 4" above the soil. As the seed germinates and starts to grow, gradually move the light up to maintain the 4” distance. This will ensure that the seedling grows slowly and, therefore, develops a strong, sturdy stem. This will equip it well for survival when it’s transplanted outdoors. You can buy individual grow-lights relatively cheaply; you can buy lights that fit into a standard lamp that you can then shine on your pots.

Why do you specify to grow on "at 20C"or a similar number? What role does temperature play in seed germination?

Temperature plays a major role in seed germination. Referring to the above, we’re trying to mimic the outside environment when we start seeds indoors. To germinate, seeds need the following conditions: warmth, moisture and light (generally, there are exceptions which I will discuss under a different question). If it’s not warm enough, the seeds will stay dormant; if it’s too warm, seeds will die. So it’s important to be able to monitor the temperature - 20C is normal, not-too-warm room temperature.

Some seeds need a cooler germinating temperature - say, 15-18C. If that’s the case, I indicate this in the sowing instructions.

My instructions say to "scarify" the seed? What the heck does that mean?

Some seeds have naturally very hard seed coats. This protects them in their natural habitat from breaking open too soon and, therefore, dying. Indoors, we have to help them along a bit with breaking the seed coat. What we’re trying to do is make an opening in the seed coat to allow the moisture to penetrate. Without moisture, the seed remains dormant.

The most common method of scarification is to sand the coats lightly with fine sandpaper. It’s fiddly, but worth it. It’s important to sand enough to let moisture penetrate but not too much - or you can damage the seed inside.

My instructions say "Requires stratification" or "benefits from stratification". Please translate.

A number of seeds, mostly perennials, cannot germinate without going through the freeze/thaw cycle that they would experience outdoors. So, we have to mimic that process for them. "Stratification" is a process that exposes the seeds to the cold while they’re in a moist environment. This can be done a couple of ways.

The first is to sow the seed in the soil-less mix in a pot, as you normally would, with moistened mix. Then, cover the pot with a plastic "baggy" - this helps maintain the moisture level of the soil-less mix. Put the pot in the fridge (*not* the freezer - exposing wet seeds to freezing temperatures will kill them!), and leave it there for as long as the directions say. Check frequently to ensure the pot isn’t drying out. When the pot has been in the fridge for the required time, remove it and take the baggy off it - then place it under lights and wait for it to germinate.

Another method, that I much prefer because it’s easier, is to sow the seeds in pots as outlined above and then put the pots outside in winter in a sheltered spot, but a spot that will get snow/rain, etc. Leave the pots there to experience the normal freeze/thaw cycle. They should start germinating in the spring.

Got other questions? Send them in! We’ll add them to the FAQ’s page.